IDTechEx 预测，2043 年全球 CCUS 产能将达到每年 18 亿吨
碳捕获、利用和储存 (CCUS) 市场 2023-2043
市场前景、粒度预测、公司概况，以及点源碳捕获、直接空气捕获 (DAC)、二氧化碳运输和储存 (T&S)，二氧化碳利用案例，二氧化碳运输和碳清除的基准
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本报告阐明了碳捕获、利用和储存 (CCUS) 的市场概况，探讨了行业的进步、商业模式以及环境和监管方面，强调了增长的挑战和机遇。报告包含 CCUS 市场 12 个细分类别的 20 年市场预测、回溯至 1972 年的 CCUS 项目的历史数据、37 份基于访谈的公司概况以及技术基准，旨在清晰描绘 CCUS 的前景。
This report provides a comprehensive view of the global carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) industry, with an in-depth analysis of both the technological and economic factors that are set to shape the CCUS industry over the next 20 years. The report considers carbon capture, carbon utilization, and carbon storage individually, discussing the technology innovations, key players, and opportunities within each area, alongside a 20-year forecast for the deployment of CCUS technologies at scale. The report also considers carbon pricing and other regulatory frameworks that can incentivize CCUS deployment.
The importance of CCUS
CCUS refers to the set of technologies that strip carbon dioxide (CO₂) from waste gases and directly from the atmosphere, before either storing it underground or using it for a range of industrial applications. The goal is to prevent CO₂ emissions from accumulating in the atmosphere, which is one of the main causes of global warming. CCUS technologies may be essential for mitigating global CO₂ emissions and keeping the world within the 2°C of warming as outlined in the Paris Agreement.
The major steps involved in carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS). Source: IDTechEx
Over the last decade, deployment of CCUS technology has expanded quickly, with 47 million tonnes of CO₂ having been captured and stored or used in 2022 alone. While this is a significant achievement, it is still not enough to have a meaningful impact on climate change - meeting the Paris Agreement could require global carbon capture capacity to reach gigatonnes per annum (Gtpa). This level of CCUS deployment require collaboration between industry and government to overcome the technological and economic hurdles associated with CCUS technology, something that could lead to significant opportunity for early movers.
Trends in the CCUS industry
CCUS hub networks are set to become the predominant method of CCUS deployment. They involve the use of shared transport and storage (T&S) infrastructure for dedicated CCS, serving multiple emitters that adopt carbon capture technologies and need to give the CO₂ captured a purpose.
In many industries, CCUS is considered a transitional option to get carbon-intensive assets to their end of life, or to serve as a steppingstone to more sustainable technologies that are still under development. Some of these key CCUS applications include:
- Hard-to-abate sectors with inherent process emissions such as cement, iron & steel, and chemicals. Renewable fuel switching and efficiency improvements will not be enough to decarbonize these industries.
- Blue hydrogen (H₂) production, where CCUS safely disposes of the CO₂ produced during traditional steam methane reforming. Blue hydrogen is set to play a key role in creating new markets for hydrogen as a clean energy carrier, acting as a bridge for green H2 once electrolyzer capacity catches up.
- E-fuels production, where CO₂ from emissions can be converted into hydrocarbons using renewable energy. E-fuels can take care of legacy internal combustion engine vehicles whilst electric vehicles gain market share and of long-haul transportation (planes, ships, trucks), whilst battery technology advances become lighter.
Ultimately, CCUS can create a demand for captured CO₂ until carbon prices are sufficiently high. CO₂ use in enhanced oil recovery (EOR) has been an on-ramp for CCUS and more recently for direct air capture (DAC) and may continue to do so alongside other emerging uses of CO₂ as a feedstock for chemicals, fuels, and building materials.
Key topics addressed in this report
Carbon capture. This report provides a detailed analysis of both point-source carbon capture and direct air capture, discussing the technologies involved in both processes and providing an economic outlook for both industries. It includes analysis of the technologies used by industry players, the costs involved in carbon capture and areas of innovation within the field, alongside an evaluation of the future of the industry.
Carbon utilization. This report provides an analysis of the major emerging areas of carbon utilization: CO₂-derived fuels, CO₂-derived chemicals, CO₂-derived building materials, and the use of CO₂ to boost yields of biological processes. It discusses the advantages and disadvantages of each application, alongside the potential market size and potential impacts of each area on climate change.
Carbon transport and storage. This report discusses the various options for carbon storage, including the mechanisms of CO₂ trapping, the different options for geologic CO₂ storage, and the global potential for CO₂ storage. It discusses how EOR can be an on-ramp for wider CCUS deployment, and the role that the legacy infrastructure of the oil and gas sector may play in developing transport and storage (T&S) networks.
Global outlook of CCUS capacity by CO₂ endpoint: operational in 2022 (left) and announced to date (right). Source: IDTechEx
Key questions answered in this report
- What is CCUS and how can it be used to address climate change?
- Where is CCUS currently deployed?
- Which industrial applications are most suited for CCUS technologies?
- What is the market outlook for CCUS?
- What are the key drivers and restraints of market growth?
- How can carbon pricing schemes and other incentives help scale up CCUS?
- How much does carbon capture technology cost?
- What can carbon dioxide be used for industrially?
- Where are the key growth opportunities for carbon dioxide utilization?
- Who are the key players in CCUS?
- Can CCUS help the world meet its climate ambitions?
This report provides the following information
Technology and market analysis:
- Data and context on the main aspects of the CCUS value chain - capture, transport, utilization, and storage.
- Analysis of the challenges and opportunities in deploying CCUS.
- State of the art and innovation in the field.
- Detailed overview and comparison of CCUS solutions for different sectors: cement and other heavy industry, hydrogen, power, oil and gas, chemicals.
- Market potential of CCUS.
- Key strategies for scaling CCUS technologies.
- The economics of scaling up CCUS operations.
- Assessment of requirements (infrastructure, energy, supply chain, etc) for CCUS market uptake.
- Climate benefit potential of CCUS solutions.
- Benchmarking based on factors such as technology readiness level (TRL), cost, and scale potential.
- Key regulations and policies influencing the CCUS market.
Player analysis and trends:
- Primary information from key CCUS-related companies.
- Analysis of CCUS players latest developments, observing projects announced, funding, trends, partnerships, and key patents.
Market forecasts and analysis:
- 20-year granular CCUS market forecasts until 2043, subdivided into 12 sub-categories based on the anthropogenic CO₂ capture source and destination.
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| 1. | EXECUTIVE SUMMARY |
| 1.1. | What is Carbon Capture, Utilization and Storage (CCUS)? |
| 1.2. | Why CCUS and why now? |
| 1.3. | CCUS could help decarbonize hard-to-abate sectors |
| 1.4. | The CCUS value chain |
| 1.5. | Carbon capture |
| 1.6. | Carbon storage |
| 1.7. | CO₂ Utilization |
| 1.8. | Carbon pricing importance in the CCUS business model |
| 1.9. | CCUS business model: The US funding boosting the industry |
| 1.10. | The momentum behind CCUS is building up |
| 1.11. | Trends in CO₂ capture sources |
| 1.12. | Outlook for CCUS by CO₂ source sector |
| 1.13. | Outlook for CCUS by CO₂ endpoint |
| 1.14. | Mixed performance from deployed CCUS projects |
| 1.15. | Solvent-based CO₂ capture |
| 1.16. | Solid sorbent-based CO₂ capture |
| 1.17. | Membrane-based CO₂ separation |
| 1.18. | Emerging CO₂ utilization applications |
| 1.19. | Is there enough underground capacity to store CO₂? |
| 1.20. | CO₂ transportation is a bottleneck for CCUS scale-up |
| 1.21. | CCUS market forecast - Key takeaways |
| 1.22. | CCUS capacity forecast by capture type - Direct Air Capture (DAC) and point-source |
| 1.23. | CCUS market forecast by CO₂ endpoint - Storage, utilization, and CO₂-EOR |
| 2. | INTRODUCTION |
| 2.1. | What is Carbon Capture, Utilization and Storage (CCUS)? |
| 2.2. | Why CCUS and why now? |
| 2.3. | CCUS could help decarbonize hard-to-abate sectors |
| 2.4. | The CCUS value chain |
| 2.5. | Carbon capture introduction |
| 2.6. | Carbon utilization introduction |
| 2.7. | Main emerging applications of CO₂ utilization |
| 2.8. | Carbon storage introduction |
| 2.9. | Carbon transport introduction |
| 2.10. | The costs of CCUS |
| 2.11. | The challenges in CCUS |
| 3. | STATUS OF THE CCUS INDUSTRY |
| 3.1. | The momentum behind CCUS is building up |
| 3.2. | Momentum: Governments' support of CCUS |
| 3.3. | Global pipeline of CCUS facilities built and announced |
| 3.4. | Analysis of CCUS development |
| 3.5. | CO₂ source: From which sectors has CO₂ been captured? |
| 3.6. | CO₂ source: Planned CCUS capacity by CO₂ source sector |
| 3.7. | CO₂ fate: Where does/will the captured CO₂ go? |
| 3.8. | Regional analysis of CCUS facilities |
| 3.9. | The improved 45Q tax credits scheme (1/2) |
| 3.10. | The improved 45Q tax credits scheme (2/2) |
| 3.11. | The UK is betting on CCUS clusters |
| 3.12. | UK's CCUS clusters: East Coast Cluster |
| 3.13. | UK's CCUS clusters: HyNet North West Cluster |
| 3.14. | Major CCUS players |
| 3.15. | Mixed performance from CCUS projects |
| 3.16. | Flagship CCUS projects comparison |
| 3.17. | Boundary Dam - battling capture technical issues |
| 3.18. | Petra Nova's shutdown: lessons for the industry? |
| 3.19. | What determines the success or failure of a CCUS project? |
| 3.20. | Enabling large-scale CCUS |
| 4. | CARBON PRICING STRATEGIES |
| 4.1. | Carbon pricing |
| 4.2. | Carbon pricing across the world |
| 4.3. | The European Union Emission Trading Scheme (EU ETS) |
| 4.4. | Has the EU ETS had an impact? |
| 4.5. | Carbon pricing in the UK |
| 4.6. | Carbon pricing in the US |
| 4.7. | Carbon pricing in China |
| 4.8. | Carbon prices in currently implemented ETS or carbon tax schemes (2022) |
| 4.9. | Challenges with carbon pricing |
| 5. | CARBON DIOXIDE CAPTURE |
| 5.1.1. | Main CO₂ capture systems |
| 5.1.2. | DAC vs point-source carbon capture |
| 5.1.3. | Main CO₂ capture technologies |
| 5.1.4. | Comparison of CO₂ capture technologies |
| 5.1.5. | The challenges in carbon capture |
| 5.1.6. | CO₂ capture: Technological gaps |
| 5.1.7. | Metrics for CO₂ capture agents |
| 5.2. | Point-source Carbon Capture |
| 5.2.1. | Point-source carbon capture (PSCC) |
| 5.2.2. | Post-combustion CO₂ capture |
| 5.2.3. | Pre-combustion CO₂ capture |
| 5.2.4. | Oxy-fuel combustion CO₂ capture |
| 5.2.5. | Comparison of point-source CO₂ capture systems |
| 5.2.6. | Post-combustion: Equipment space requirements |
| 5.2.7. | Going beyond CO₂ capture rates of 90% |
| 5.2.8. | 99% capture rate: Suitability of different PSCC technologies |
| 5.2.9. | CO₂ capture partnership: Linde and BASF |
| 5.3. | Solvent-based CO₂ Capture |
| 5.3.1. | Solvent-based CO₂ capture |
| 5.3.2. | Chemical absorption solvents |
| 5.3.3. | Amine-based post-combustion CO₂ absorption |
| 5.3.4. | Hot Potassium Carbonate (HPC) process |
| 5.3.5. | Chilled ammonia process (CAP) |
| 5.3.6. | Comparison of key chemical solvent-based systems (1/3) |
| 5.3.7. | Comparison of key chemical solvent-based systems (2/3) |
| 5.3.8. | Comparison of key chemical solvent-based systems (3/3) |
| 5.3.9. | Chemical solvents used in current operational CCUS point-source projects (1/2) |
| 5.3.10. | Chemical solvents used in current operational CCUS point-source projects (2/2) |
| 5.3.11. | Physical absorption solvents |
| 5.3.12. | Comparison of key physical absorption solvents |
| 5.3.13. | Physical solvents used in current operational CCUS point-source projects |
| 5.3.14. | Innovation addressing solvent-based CO₂ capture drawbacks |
| 5.3.15. | Innovation in carbon capture solvents |
| 5.3.16. | Next generation solvent technologies for point-source carbon capture |
| 5.4. | Sorbent-based CO₂ Capture |
| 5.4.1. | Solid sorbent-based CO₂ separation |
| 5.4.2. | Solid sorbents for CO₂ capture (1/3) |
| 5.4.3. | Solid sorbents for CO₂ capture (2/3) |
| 5.4.4. | Solid sorbents for CO₂ capture (3/3) |
| 5.4.5. | Comparison of key solid sorbent systems |
| 5.4.6. | Solid sorbents in post-combustion applications |
| 5.4.7. | Solid sorbents in pre-combustion applications |
| 5.4.8. | Solid sorbents show promising results for pre-combustion CO₂ capture applications |
| 5.5. | Membrane-based CO₂ capture |
| 5.5.1. | Membrane-based CO₂ separation |
| 5.5.2. | Membranes: Operating principles |
| 5.5.3. | Membranes for pre-combustion capture (1/2) |
| 5.5.4. | Membranes for pre-combustion capture (2/2) |
| 5.5.5. | Membranes for post-combustion and oxy-fuel combustion capture |
| 5.5.6. | Developments in membrane capture technologies |
| 5.5.7. | Technical advantages and challenges for membrane-based CO₂ separation |
| 5.5.8. | Organic vs inorganic catalytic membranes |
| 5.5.9. | Comparison of membranes applied to CCUS |
| 5.6. | Novel CO₂ Capture Technologies |
| 5.6.1. | Novel concepts for CO₂ separation |
| 5.6.2. | Capture technology innovation (1/2) |
| 5.6.3. | Capture technology innovation (2/2) |
| 5.6.4. | Cryogenic CO₂ capture: an emerging alternative |
| 5.6.5. | Chemical looping combustion (CLC) |
| 5.6.6. | LEILAC process: Direct CO₂ capture in cement plants |
| 5.6.7. | LEILAC process: Configuration options |
| 5.6.8. | Calcium Looping (CaL) |
| 5.6.9. | Calcium Looping (CaL) configuration options |
| 5.6.10. | CO₂ capture with Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs) |
| 5.6.11. | CO₂ capture with Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFCs) |
| 5.6.12. | The Allam-Fetvedt Cycle |
| 5.7. | Point-source Carbon Capture in Key Industrial Sectors |
| 5.7.1. | Power plants with CCUS generate less energy |
| 5.7.2. | The impact of PSCC on power plant efficiency |
| 5.7.3. | Is a zero-emissions fossil power plant possible? |
| 5.7.4. | CO₂ capture for blue hydrogen production (1/2) |
| 5.7.5. | CO₂ capture for blue hydrogen production (2/2) |
| 5.7.6. | CO₂ capture retrofit options for blue hydrogen |
| 5.7.7. | Status of carbon capture in the cement industry |
| 5.7.8. | Pipeline of CCUS projects in development in the cement industry |
| 5.7.9. | Carbon capture technologies demonstrated in the cement sector |
| 5.7.10. | SkyMine® chemical absorption: The largest CCU demonstration in the cement sector |
| 5.7.11. | Carbon Capture and Utilization (CCU) in the cement sector: Fortera's ReCarb™ |
| 5.7.12. | Algae CO₂ capture from cement plants |
| 5.7.13. | Cost and technological status of carbon capture in the cement sector |
| 5.7.14. | Carbon capture in marine vessels |
| 5.7.15. | Summary: PSCC technology readiness and providers (1/2) |
| 5.7.16. | Summary: PSCC technology readiness and providers (2/2) |
| 5.8. | Direct Air Capture |
| 5.8.1. | What is direct air capture (DAC)? |
| 5.8.2. | Why direct air capture (DAC)? |
| 5.8.3. | The state of the DAC market |
| 5.8.4. | Momentum: private investments in DAC |
| 5.8.5. | Momentum: public investment and policy support for DAC |
| 5.8.6. | Momentum: DAC-specific regulation |
| 5.8.7. | Direct air capture technologies |
| 5.8.8. | Liquid solvent-based DAC and alkali looping regeneration |
| 5.8.9. | DAC solid sorbent swing adsorption processes (1/2) |
| 5.8.10. | DAC solid sorbent swing adsorption processes (2/2) |
| 5.8.11. | Electro-swing adsorption of CO₂ for DAC |
| 5.8.12. | Solid sorbents in DAC |
| 5.8.13. | Emerging solid sorbent materials for DAC |
| 5.8.14. | Solid sorbent- vs liquid solvent-based DAC |
| 5.8.15. | Direct air capture companies |
| 5.8.16. | Direct air capture company landscape |
| 5.8.17. | A comparison of the DAC leaders |
| 5.8.18. | Challenges associated with DAC technology (1/2) |
| 5.8.19. | Challenges associated with DAC technology (2/2) |
| 5.8.20. | DACCS co-location with geothermal energy |
| 5.8.21. | Will DAC be deployed in time to make a difference? |
| 5.8.22. | What is needed for DAC to achieve the gigatonne capacity by 2050? |
| 5.8.23. | DAC land requirement is an advantage |
| 5.8.24. | DAC SWOT analysis |
| 5.8.25. | DAC: key takeaways |
| 5.9. | Carbon Capture Cost Analysis |
| 5.9.1. | The factors influencing CO₂ capture costs |
| 5.9.2. | How does CO₂ partial pressure influence cost? |
| 5.9.3. | PSCC technologies: Cost, energy demand, and CO₂ recovery |
| 5.9.4. | Techno-economic comparison of CO₂ capture technologies (1/2) |
| 5.9.5. | Techno-economic comparison of CO₂ capture technologies (2/2) |
| 5.9.6. | Economic comparison between amine- and membrane-based CO₂ capture |
| 5.9.7. | The cost of increasing the rate of CO₂ capture in the power sector |
| 5.9.8. | The economics of DAC |
| 5.9.9. | The CAPEX of DAC |
| 5.9.10. | The CAPEX of DAC: sub-system contribution |
| 5.9.11. | The OPEX of DAC |
| 5.9.12. | Levelized cost of DAC |
| 5.9.13. | Financing DAC |
| 6. | CARBON DIOXIDE REMOVAL (CDR) |
| 6.1. | What is carbon dioxide removal (CDR)? |
| 6.2. | What is the difference between CDR and CCUS? |
| 6.3. | Why carbon dioxide removal (CDR)? |
| 6.4. | The state of CDR in the voluntary carbon market |
| 6.5. | Direct air carbon capture and storage (DACCS) |
| 6.6. | Afforestation and reforestation (A/R) |
| 6.7. | Soil carbon sequestration (SCS) |
| 6.8. | Ocean-based Negative Emissions Technologies |
| 6.9. | Biochar and bio-oil |
| 6.10. | Bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS) |
| 6.11. | Opportunities in BECCS: heat generation |
| 6.12. | Opportunities in BECCS: waste-to-energy |
| 6.13. | BECCUS current status |
| 6.14. | Trends in BECCUS projects (1/2) |
| 6.15. | Trends in BECCUS projects (2/2) |
| 6.16. | The challenges of BECCS |
| 6.17. | What is the business model for BECCS? |
| 6.18. | The energy and carbon efficiency of BECCS |
| 6.19. | Is BECCS sustainable? |
| 6.20. | BECCS for hydrogen production and carbon removal |
| 6.21. | CDR technologies: key takeaways |
| 7. | CARBON DIOXIDE UTILIZATION |
| 7.1.1. | CO₂ Utilization as a climate mitigation solution |
| 7.1.2. | How is CO₂ used and sourced today? |
| 7.1.3. | CO₂ Utilization pathways |
| 7.1.4. | Comparison of emerging CO₂ utilization applications (1/2) |
| 7.1.5. | Comparison of emerging CO₂ utilization applications (2/2) |
| 7.1.6. | Factors driving future market potential |
| 7.1.7. | Carbon utilization potential and climate benefits |
| 7.1.8. | Cost effectiveness of CO₂ utilization applications |
| 7.1.9. | Carbon pricing is needed for most CO₂U applications to break even |
| 7.1.10. | Traction in CO₂U: Funding worldwide |
| 7.1.11. | Technology readiness and climate benefits of CO₂U pathways |
| 7.1.12. | CO₂ Utilization: General pros and cons |
| 7.2. | CO₂-derived building materials |
| 7.2.1. | The Basic Chemistry: CO₂ Mineralization |
| 7.2.2. | CO₂ use in the cement and concrete supply chain |
| 7.2.3. | CO₂ utilization in concrete curing or mixing |
| 7.2.4. | CO₂ utilization in carbonates |
| 7.2.5. | CO₂-derived carbonates from waste (1/2) |
| 7.2.6. | CO₂-derived carbonates from waste (2/2) |
| 7.2.7. | The market potential of CO₂ use in the construction industry |
| 7.2.8. | Supplying CO₂ to a decentralized concrete industry |
| 7.2.9. | Prefabricated versus ready-mixed concrete markets |
| 7.2.10. | Market dynamics of cement and concrete |
| 7.2.11. | CO₂U business models in building materials |
| 7.2.12. | CO₂ utilization players in mineralization |
| 7.2.13. | Concrete carbon footprint of key CO₂U companies |
| 7.2.14. | Key takeaways in CO₂-derived building materials |
| 7.3. | CO₂-derived chemicals and polymers |
| 7.3.1. | CO₂ can be converted into a giant range of chemicals |
| 7.3.2. | Using CO₂ as a feedstock is energy-intensive |
| 7.3.3. | The basics: Types of CO₂ utilization reactions |
| 7.3.4. | CO₂ may need to be first converted into CO or syngas |
| 7.3.5. | Fischer-Tropsch synthesis: Syngas to hydrocarbons |
| 7.3.6. | Electrochemical CO₂ reduction |
| 7.3.7. | Low-temperature electrochemical CO₂ reduction |
| 7.3.8. | High-temperature solid oxide electrolyzers |
| 7.3.9. | Cost parity has been a challenge for CO₂-derived methanol |
| 7.3.10. | Thermochemical methods: CO₂-derived methanol |
| 7.3.11. | Aromatic hydrocarbons from CO₂ |
| 7.3.12. | Artificial photosynthesis |
| 7.3.13. | CO₂ in polymer manufacturing |
| 7.3.14. | Commercial production of polycarbonate from CO₂ |
| 7.3.15. | Carbon nanostructures made from CO₂ |
| 7.3.16. | Players in CO₂-derived chemicals by end-product |
| 7.3.17. | CO₂-derived chemicals: Market potential |
| 7.3.18. | Are CO₂-derived chemicals climate beneficial? |
| 7.3.19. | CO₂-derived chemicals manufacturing: Centralized or distributed? |
| 7.3.20. | What would it take for the chemical industry to run on CO₂? |
| 7.3.21. | Which CO₂U technologies are more suitable to which products? |
| 7.3.22. | Technical feasibility of main CO₂-derived chemicals |
| 7.3.23. | Key takeaways in CO₂-derived chemicals and polymers |
| 7.4. | CO₂-derived fuels |
| 7.4.1. | What are CO₂-derived fuels? |
| 7.4.2. | CO₂ can be converted into a variety of energy carriers |
| 7.4.3. | Summary of main routes to CO₂-fuels |
| 7.4.4. | The challenge of energy efficiency |
| 7.4.5. | CO₂-fuels market: Legacy vehicles and long-haul transportation |
| 7.4.6. | CO₂-fuels in shipping |
| 7.4.7. | CO₂-fuels in aviation |
| 7.4.8. | Synthetic natural gas - thermocatalytic pathway |
| 7.4.9. | Biological fermentation of CO₂ into methane |
| 7.4.10. | Drivers and barriers for power-to-gas technology adoption |
| 7.4.11. | Power-to-gas projects worldwide - current and announced |
| 7.4.12. | Can CO₂-fuels achieve cost parity with fossil-fuels? |
| 7.4.13. | CO₂-fuels rollout is linked to electrolyzer capacity |
| 7.4.14. | Low-carbon hydrogen is crucial to CO₂-fuels |
| 7.4.15. | CO₂-derived fuels projects announced |
| 7.4.16. | CO₂-derived fuels projects worldwide over time - current and announced |
| 7.4.17. | CO₂-fuels from solar power |
| 7.4.18. | Companies in CO₂-fuels by end-product |
| 7.4.19. | Are CO₂-fuels climate beneficial? |
| 7.4.20. | CO₂-derived fuels SWOT analysis |
| 7.4.21. | CO₂-derived fuels: Market potential |
| 7.4.22. | Key takeaways |
| 7.5. | CO₂ utilization in biological processes |
| 7.5.1. | CO₂ utilization in biological processes |
| 7.5.2. | Main companies using CO₂ in biological processes |
| 7.5.3. | CO₂ enrichment in greenhouses |
| 7.5.4. | CO₂ enrichment in greenhouses: Market potential |
| 7.5.5. | CO₂ enrichment in greenhouses: Pros and cons |
| 7.5.6. | CO₂-enhanced algae or cyanobacteria cultivation |
| 7.5.7. | CO₂-enhanced algae cultivation: Open vs closed systems |
| 7.5.8. | Algae has multiple market applications |
| 7.5.9. | The algae-based fuel market has been rocky |
| 7.5.10. | Algae-based fuel for aviation |
| 7.5.11. | CO₂-enhanced algae cultivation: Pros and cons |
| 7.5.12. | CO₂ utilization in biomanufacturing |
| 7.5.13. | CO₂-consuming microorganisms |
| 7.5.14. | Food and feed from CO₂ |
| 7.5.15. | CO₂-derived food and feed: Market |
| 7.5.16. | Carbon fermentation: Pros and cons |
| 8. | CARBON DIOXIDE STORAGE |
| 8.1.1. | The case for carbon dioxide storage or sequestration |
| 8.1.2. | Technology status of CO₂ storage |
| 8.1.3. | Storing supercritical CO₂ underground |
| 8.1.4. | Mechanisms of subsurface CO₂ trapping |
| 8.1.5. | Estimates of global CO₂ storage space |
| 8.1.6. | CO₂ leakage is a small risk |
| 8.1.7. | Monitoring, measurement, and verification (MMV) in CO₂ storage |
| 8.1.8. | Carbon storage: Technical challenges |
| 8.2. | CO₂ Dedicated Storage |
| 8.2.1. | Storage types for geologic CO₂ storage (1/3) |
| 8.2.2. | Storage types for geologic CO₂ storage (2/3) |
| 8.2.3. | Storage types for geologic CO₂ storage (2/3) |
| 8.2.4. | Can CO₂ storage be monetized? |
| 8.2.5. | CCS as a Service in the North Sea: The Longship Project |
| 8.2.6. | CCS as a Service in the North Sea: The Porthos Project |
| 8.2.7. | The cost of carbon sequestration (1/2) |
| 8.2.8. | The cost of carbon sequestration (1/2) |
| 8.3. | CO₂ Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) |
| 8.3.1. | What is CO₂ Enhanced oil recovery (EOR)? |
| 8.3.2. | What happens to the injected CO₂? |
| 8.3.3. | Types of CO₂-EOR designs |
| 8.3.4. | Global status of CO₂-EOR: US dominates but other regions arise |
| 8.3.5. | Operational anthropogenic CO₂-EOR facilities worldwide |
| 8.3.6. | CO₂-EOR potential |
| 8.3.7. | Most CO₂ in the US is still naturally sourced |
| 8.3.8. | CO₂-EOR main players in the US |
| 8.3.9. | CO₂-EOR main players in North America |
| 8.3.10. | CO₂-EOR in China |
| 8.3.11. | The economics of promoting CO₂ storage through CO₂-EOR |
| 8.3.12. | The impact of oil prices on CO₂-EOR feasibility |
| 8.3.13. | Climate considerations in CO₂-EOR |
| 8.3.14. | The climate impact of CO₂-EOR varies over time |
| 8.3.15. | CO₂-EOR: An on-ramp for CCS and DACCS? |
| 8.3.16. | CO₂-EOR in shale: The next frontier? |
| 8.3.17. | CO₂-EOR SWOT analysis |
| 8.3.18. | CO₂-EOR: Key market takeaways |
| 8.3.19. | CO₂-EOR: Key environmental takeaways |
| 9. | CARBON DIOXIDE TRANSPORTATION |
| 9.1. | CO₂ transportation |
| 9.2. | CO₂ transportation is a bottleneck |
| 9.3. | Technical challenges in CO₂ transport |
| 9.4. | Technology status of CO₂ transport |
| 9.5. | Cost considerations in CO₂ transport (1/2) |
| 9.6. | Cost considerations in CO₂ transport (2/2) |
| 9.7. | Potential for cost reduction in transport and storage |
| 9.8. | CO₂ Infrastructure in Europe |
| 9.9. | CO₂ transport and storage business model |
| 10. | MARKET FORECASTS |
| 10.1. | CCUS forecast methodology and assumptions |
| 10.2. | CCUS forecast breakdown |
| 10.3. | CCUS market forecast - Overall discussion |
| 10.4. | CCUS capacity forecast by capture type, Mtpa of CO₂ |
| 10.5. | CCUS forecast by capture type - Direct Air Capture (DAC) capacity forecast |
| 10.6. | Point-source carbon capture capacity forecast by CO₂ source sector, Mtpa of CO₂ |
| 10.7. | Point-source carbon capture forecast by CO₂ source - Industry and hydrogen |
| 10.8. | Point-source carbon capture forecast by CO₂ source - Gas, power, and bioenergy |
| 10.9. | CCUS capacity forecast by CO₂ endpoint, Mtpa of CO₂ |
| 10.10. | CCUS forecast by CO₂ endpoint - Discussion |
| 10.11. | CCUS forecast by CO₂ endpoint - CO₂ storage |
| 10.12. | CCUS forecast by CO₂ endpoint - CO₂ enhanced oil recovery (EOR) |
| 10.13. | CO₂ utilization capacity forecast by CO₂ end-use, Mtpa of CO₂ |
| 10.14. | CCUS forecast by CO₂ endpoint - CO₂ utilization |
| 11. | COMPANY PROFILES |
| 11.1. | 8Rivers |
| 11.2. | Cambridge Carbon Capture |
| 11.3. | Carbicrete |
| 11.4. | Carboclave |
| 11.5. | Carbon Engineering |
| 11.6. | Carbon Recycling International |
| 11.7. | Carbon Upcycling Technologies |
| 11.8. | CarbonCure |
| 11.9. | CarbonFree |
| 11.10. | CarbonWorks |
| 11.11. | Cemvita Factory |
| 11.12. | CERT |
| 11.13. | Charm Industrial |
| 11.14. | Chiyoda Corporation |
| 11.15. | Climeworks |
| 11.16. | Coval Energy |
| 11.17. | Denbury |
| 11.18. | Dimensional Energy |
| 11.19. | Econic |
| 11.20. | Electrochaea |
| 11.21. | Evonik |
| 11.22. | Fortera |
| 11.23. | Global Thermostat |
| 11.24. | LanzaTech |
| 11.25. | Liquid Wind |
| 11.26. | Mars Materials |
| 11.27. | Mercurius Biorefining |
| 11.28. | Newlight Technologies |
| 11.29. | OBRIST Group |
| 11.30. | Planetary Technologies |
| 11.31. | SkyNano LLC |
| 11.32. | Solar Foods |
| 11.33. | Sunfire |
| 11.34. | Sustaera |
| 11.35. | Synhelion |
| 11.36. | Twelve |
| 11.37. | UP Catalyst |
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